The French Revolution

Explain why the artist has portrayed the nobleman as the spider and the peasant as the fly.

Answer

The portrayal of the nobleman as the spider and the peasant as the fly is a symbolic depiction of the oppression and exploitation that the peasants faced at the hands of noblemen. Just as a spider catches and consumes flies, the nobleman are depicted as exploiting the peasant for his own gain. This portrayal serves as a critique of the aristocracy's treatment of the lower classes, highlighting the inequality and injustice inherent in the feudal or hierarchical societal structure.

Fill in the blank boxes in Fig. 4 with appropriate terms from among the following:

Answer

What message is Young trying to convey here? Whom does he mean when he speaks of ‘slaves’? Who is he criticising? What dangers does he sense in the situation of 1787?

Source A

Accounts of lived experiences in the Old Regime

1. Georges Danton, who later became active in revolutionary politics, wrote to a friend in 1793, looking back upon the time when he had just completed his studies:
   ‘I was educated in the residential college of Plessis. There I was in the company of important men … Once my studies ended, I was left with nothing. I started looking for a post. It was impossible to find one at the law courts in Paris. The choice of a career in the army was not open to me as I was not a noble by birth, nor did I have a patron. The church too could not offer me a refuge. I could not buy an office as I did not possess a sou. My old friends turned their backs to me … the system had provided us with an education without however offering a field where our talents could be utilised.’
2. An Englishman, Arthur Young, travelled through France during the years from 1787 to 1789 and wrote detailed descriptions of his journeys. He often commented on what he saw.
   ‘He who decides to be served and waited upon by slaves, ill-treated slaves at that, must be fully aware that by doing so he is placing his property and his life in a situation which is very different from that he would be in, had he chosen the services of free and welltreated men. And he who chooses to dine to the accompaniment of his victims’ groans, should not complain if during a riot his daughter gets kidnapped or his son’s throat is slit.’

Answer

Young's message revolves around the oppressive nature of the monarchy and the aristocracy, as well as the plight of the common people who are treated as "slaves" by those in power. He likely aims to advocate for social reform and greater equality in society.

He is using the term 'slaves' for common people. When Young speaks of "slaves," he's likely referring to the common people, particularly the peasants and lower classes who were heavily oppressed and exploited by the monarchy and the aristocracy.

Young criticizes the French monarchy and the aristocracy for their oppressive rule and their disregard for the well-being of the common people.

In the situation of 1787, Young likely senses the dangers of social unrest and revolution brewing due to the extreme inequality and injustice in society. The oppressive policies of the monarchy and the aristocracy were fueling resentment and discontent among the common people, leading to the potential for widespread rebellion and upheaval. Young may have been warning against the dangers of maintaining such an unjust social order without addressing the grievances of the oppressed masses.

Representatives of the Third Estate take the oath raising their arms in the direction of Bailly, the President of the Assembly, standing on a table in the centre. Do you think that during the actual event Bailly would have stood with his back to the assembled deputies? What could have been David’s intention in placing Bailly the way he has done?

Answer

In the actual event, I don't think Bailly would have stood with his back to the assembled deputies. Instead, he would have been facing them, presiding over the proceedings.

Jacques-Louis David, the artist, made several artistic choices in his depiction of the Tennis Court Oath. Here are a few possible reasons for his depiction of Bailly with his back to the assembly:

1. Dramatic Composition — By positioning Bailly with his back to the viewer and facing the assembly, David creates a focal point that draws the viewer's eye to the passionate and unified gesture of the deputies. This composition emphasizes the collective nature of the oath rather than focusing on a single individual.
2. Symbolic Leadership — Bailly’s raised hand and central position symbolize leadership and the act of administering the oath. This placement underscores his role as the facilitator of this historic moment without detracting from the collective action of the deputies.
3. Perspective and Depth — This orientation allows David to include a wide array of expressive gestures and faces in the background, highlighting the diversity and unity of the deputies. It adds depth and dynamism to the scene.
4. Emphasis on Unity — By facing the assembly, Bailly symbolizes the direction of their collective will and purpose. It visually represents the deputies coming together in a unified act of defiance and resolution against the monarchy.

Identify the symbols in Box 1 which stand for liberty, equality and fraternity.

Answer

1. Liberty — Broken chain and Red Phrygian cap.
2. Equality — The Law Tablet.
3. Fraternity — The bundle of rods or fasces.

Explain the meaning of the painting of the Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen (Fig. 8) by reading only the symbols.

Answer

The symbols used in the painting of the Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen were:

1. The broken chain stands for liberty and freedom. It shows end of feudalism and oppression.
2. The bundle of rods or fasces represent unity and strength.
3. The eye within a triangle radiating light was all-seeing that eye stands for knowledge. The rays of the sun aim to drive away the clouds of ignorance.
4. Red Phrygian cap was a symbol representing the overthrow of tyranny and the assertion of individual rights.
5. Blue-white-red were the national colours of France.
6. The winged woman represents law.
7. Snake biting its tail to form a ring was the Symbol of Eternity as this ring has neither beginning nor end.

Compare the political rights which the Constitution of 1791 gave to the citizens with Articles 1 and 6 of the Declaration (Source C). Are the two documents consistent? Do the two documents convey the same idea?

Source C

The Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen

1. Men are born and remain free and equal in rights.
2. The aim of every political association is the preservation of the natural and inalienable rights of man; these are liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression.
3. The source of all sovereignty resides in the nation; no group or individual may exercise authority that does not come from the people.
4. Liberty consists of the power to do whatever is not injurious to others.
5. The law has the right to forbid only actions that are injurious to society.
6. Law is the expression of the general will. All citizens have the right to participate in its formation, personally or through their representatives. All citizens are equal before it.
7. No man may be accused, arrested or detained, except in cases determined by the law.

11. Every citizen may speak, write and print freely; he must take responsibility for the abuse of such liberty in cases determined by the law.
12. For the maintenance of the public force and for the expenses of administration a common tax is indispensable; it must be assessed equally on all citizens in proportion to their means.

17. Since property is a sacred and inviolable right, no one may be deprived of it, unless a legally established public necessity requires it. In that case a just compensation must be given in advance.

Answer

The 1st Article of the Declaration says that ‘All men are free and equal in rights’. The 6th Article of the Declaration says that ‘All citizens have the right to participate in the formation of laws’. But the Constitution of 1791 contradicted with the Declaration of Rights in giving all the citizens equal political rights. According to the Constitution only men above 25 years of age and who paid taxes equal to at least 3 days of a labourer’s wage were given the right to vote. The remaining men and all women were classed as passive citizens. To qualify as an elector and then as a member of the Assembly, a man had to belong to the highest bracket of taxpayers. Thus the Constitution of 1791 violated the Declaration of Rights. Thus we can say two documents contradicted with each other. They do not convey the same idea.

Which groups of French society would have gained from the Constitution of 1791? Which groups would have had reason to be dissatisfied? What developments does Marat (Source B) anticipate in the future?

Source B

The revolutionary journalist Jean-Paul Marat commented in his newspaper L’Ami du peuple (The friend of the people) on the Constitution drafted by the National Assembly:
‘The task of representing the people has been given to the rich … the lot of the poor and oppressed will never be improved by peaceful means alone. Here we have absolute proof of how wealth influences the law. Yet laws will last only as long as the people agree to obey them. And when they have managed to cast off the yoke of the aristocrats, they will do the same to the other owners of wealth.’
Source: An extract from the newspaper L’Ami du peuple.

Answer

The men belonging to the higher class gained from the Constitution of 1791 as they got right to vote and elect. The poor men and all women had reason to be dissatisfied as they had no political rights.

According to Marat, laws will last only as long as the people agree to obey them. This means that the revolution must not stop till equal political rights are provided and should also aim for economic and social transformation.

Imagine the impact of the events in France on neighbouring countries such as Prussia, Austria-Hungary or Spain, all of which were absolute monarchies. How would the kings, traders, peasants, nobles or members of the clergy here have reacted to the news of what was happening in France?

Answer

The events of the French Revolution had a significant impact on neighboring countries such as Prussia, Austria-Hungary, and Spain, all of which were absolute monarchies at the time. The reactions of various segments of society in these countries to the events unfolding in France were as follows:

1. The kings and monarchs of neighboring countries would have viewed the events in France with alarm and fear. They would have been concerned about the spread of revolutionary ideas and the potential threat to their own power and authority. They might have reacted by tightening control over their own populations.
2. The traders in neighboring countries might have been inspired by the ideas of the French Revolution, particularly those related to individual rights, liberty, and equality. They could have been motivated to advocate for political and economic reforms in their own countries, challenging the existing power structures and calling for greater representation and freedoms.
3. The peasants and working class in neighboring countries might have been encouraged by the revolutionary actions of the French people, seeing it as a symbol of hope for their own struggles against oppression and poverty.
4. The clergy in neighbouring countries, might have been concerned about the spread of anti-clerical sentiment and the potential erosion of their influence and authority.

Look carefully at the painting and identify the objects which are political symbols you saw in Box (broken chain, red cap, fasces, Charter of the Declaration of Rights). The pyramid stands for equality often represented by a triangle. Use the symbols to interpret the painting. Describe your impressions of the female figure of liberty.

Answer

The broken chain stands for liberty and freedom. It shows end of feudalism and oppression. The bundle of rods or fasces represent unity and strength. Red Phrygian cap is a symbol representing freedom from slavery. The female figuring in attire of Blue-white-red colours shows patriotism as they are the national colours of France.

The female figure of liberty, often depicted as a symbol of freedom and enlightenment, is a powerful and iconic representation that evokes a range of emotions. Here are some impressions:

1. Strength and Resilience — The figure of liberty is often portrayed as strong and resilient, standing tall with a sense of confidence and determination.
2. Symbol of Hope — The image of liberty can inspire hope and optimism, particularly in times of struggle or oppression.
3. Empowerment — Liberty is often depicted with attributes of power, such as a torch or a crown, symbolizing empowerment.
4. Universal Values — The female figure of liberty transcends cultural and national boundaries, embodying universal values such as justice, equality, and human rights.

Compare the views of Desmoulins and Robespierre. How does each one understand the use of state force? What does Robespierre mean by ‘the war of liberty against tyranny’? How does Desmoulins perceive liberty? Refer once more to Source C. What did the constitutional laws on the rights of individuals lay down? Discuss your views on the subject in class.

Source C

The Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen

1. Men are born and remain free and equal in rights.
2. The aim of every political association is the preservation of the natural and inalienable rights of man; these are liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression.
3. The source of all sovereignty resides in the nation; no group or individual may exercise authority that does not come from the people.
4. Liberty consists of the power to do whatever is not injurious to others.
5. The law has the right to forbid only actions that are injurious to society.
6. Law is the expression of the general will. All citizens have the right to participate in its formation, personally or through their representatives. All citizens are equal before it.
7. No man may be accused, arrested or detained, except in cases determined by the law.

11. Every citizen may speak, write and print freely; he must take responsibility for the abuse of such liberty in cases determined by the law.
12. For the maintenance of the public force and for the expenses of administration a common tax is indispensable; it must be assessed equally on all citizens in proportion to their means.

17. Since property is a sacred and inviolable right, no one may be deprived of it, unless a legally established public necessity requires it. In that case a just compensation must be given in advance.

Answer

For Robespierre, this war symbolized the conflict between the revolutionary forces advocating for liberty, equality, and fraternity, and the forces of oppression and tyranny represented by the monarchy, aristocracy, and counter-revolutionary factions.

Camille Desmoulins perceived liberty through a lens that emphasized both individual rights and collective well-being. Desmoulins was known for his impassioned advocacy for freedom and his desire to see it realized in the context of a just and equitable society.

Following were the constitutional laws laid down on the rights of individual:

• Equality
• Liberty
• Freedom of Speech and Press
• Right of political association
• Right of property.

Describe the persons represented in Fig. 12 – their actions, their postures, the objects they are carrying. Look carefully to see whether all of them come from the same social group. What symbols has the artist included in the image? What do they stand for? Do the actions of the women reflect traditional ideas of how women were expected to behave in public? What do you think: does the artist sympathise with the women’s activities or is he critical of them? Discuss your views in the class.

Answer

These women seem to belong to the same social group of middle and lower middle, working class. The agricultural implements in their hands confirm that they are peasants. The clothes also show that they are poor. The symbol of justice held by one woman depicts that they are striving for it. The woman on the horse symbolizes power and strength. Their body language shows their confidence and jest. The drum symbolizes that they are proclaiming their march to all concerned. Here the actions of the women do not reflect the traditional ideas of how women should publicly behave. The artist definitely sympathizes with the activities of the women.

Compare the manifesto drafted by Olympe de Gouges (Source F) with the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (Source C).

Source F

Some of the basic rights set forth in Olympe de Gouges’ Declaration.

1. Woman is born free and remains equal to man in rights.
2. The goal of all political associations is the preservation of the natural rights of woman and man: These rights are liberty, property, security, and above all resistance to oppression.
3. The source of all sovereignty resides in the nation, which is nothing but the union of woman and man.
4. The law should be the expression of the general will; all female and male citizens should have a say either personally or by their representatives in its formulation; it should be the same for all. All female and male citizens are equally entitled to all honours and public employment according to their abilities and without any other distinction than that of their talents.
5. No woman is an exception; she is accused, arrested, and detained in cases determined by law. Women, like men, obey this rigorous law.

Source C

The Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen

1. Men are born and remain free and equal in rights.
2. The aim of every political association is the preservation of the natural and inalienable rights of man; these are liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression.
3. The source of all sovereignty resides in the nation; no group or individual may exercise authority that does not come from the people.
4. Liberty consists of the power to do whatever is not injurious to others.
5. The law has the right to forbid only actions that are injurious to society.
6. Law is the expression of the general will. All citizens have the right to participate in its formation, personally or through their representatives. All citizens are equal before it.
7. No man may be accused, arrested or detained, except in cases determined by the law.

11. Every citizen may speak, write and print freely; he must take responsibility for the abuse of such liberty in cases determined by the law.
12. For the maintenance of the public force and for the expenses of administration a common tax is indispensable; it must be assessed equally on all citizens in proportion to their means.

17. Since property is a sacred and inviolable right, no one may be deprived of it, unless a legally established public necessity requires it. In that case a just compensation must be given in advance.

Answer

The Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen excluded women from basic rights that each human being was entitled to. Olympe de Gouges’ manifesto known as the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and Citizen protested against this discrimination and demanded equal right for women.

Imagine yourself to be one of the women in Fig. 13. Formulate a response to the arguments put forward by Chaumette (Source G).

Source G

In 1793, the Jacobin politician Chaumette sought to justify the closure of women’s clubs on the following grounds:

‘Has Nature entrusted domestic duties to men? Has she given us breasts to nurture babies?

No.

She said to Man:

Be a man. Hunting, agriculture, political duties … that is your kingdom.

She said to Woman:

Be a woman … the things of the household, the sweet duties of motherhood – those are your tasks.

Shameless are those women, who wish to become men. Have not duties been fairly distributed?’

Answer

The arguments given by Chaumette are not rational. He has talked about only the biological role of women but as an individual women has equal rights like men. They must be treated equally. Women are not only capable of doing traditional works like bearing and nurturing a child, looking after their families but they are equally capable as men to carry out other important tasks of life. They also deserve rights of education, voting and fighting elections.

Record your impressions of this print (Fig. 14). Describe the objects lying on the ground. What do they symbolise? What attitude does the picture express towards non-European slaves?

Answer

The given print symbolises the superior feeling of French people towards slaves from Africa and the Caribbean. The French considered themselves civilised and treated these people as uncivilized. The slogans represent the fact that the former slaves will have equal rights to the European settlers, now that the slaves are free. The objects lying on the ground are arms. They are being given European cloths to wear, symbolizing the superior culture of Europe compared to that of the slaves. This expresses the racial attitude of the French people towards the slaves.

Describe the picture in your own words. What are the images that the artist has used to communicate the following ideas: greed, equality, justice, takeover by the state of the assets of the church?

Answer

Description of the Picture
The picture shows state officials confiscating church property during the French Revolution. A clergyman, identifiable by his red robe and clerical attire, appears unhappy. The state officials are aggressively seizing the property of church which is shown by the chest getting filled with treasures seized from the clergymen.

Images and Ideas

• Greed — The fat, overweight clergyman symbolize greed.
• Equality — The equally slim size of the two men on the right leaving the place symbolise equality.
• Justice — The idea of justice is conveyed by showing that everyone is subjected to the same mechanical device (of law), which serves to reduce their excess wealth or property size.
• State Takeover — The state officials in the picture and the chest getting filled with church treasures symbolize the takeover by the state of the assets of the church.

Describe the circumstances leading to the outbreak of revolutionary protest in France.

Answer

The outbreak of revolutionary protest in France can be attributed to a complex interplay of social, economic, and political factors that had been brewing for years. These were:

1. Social Inequality — The society was divided into three estates: the clergy, the nobility, and the common people (the Third Estate). The Third Estate, which constituted the vast majority of the population, faced heavy taxation and lacked political representation, while the nobility and clergy enjoyed significant privileges.
2. Economic Crisis — France was grappling with a severe economic crisis because of extravagant spending by the monarchy, costly wars, and poor harvests that led to food shortages. The tax burden fell disproportionately on the Third Estate, leading to widespread discontent among peasants, urban workers, and the middle class.
3. Enlightenment Ideas — The ideas such as liberty, equality, and fraternity, spread across Europe and found fertile ground in France. Philosophers like Voltaire, Rousseau, and Montesquieu criticized the absolute power of the monarchy and advocated for political reforms.
4. Weak Leadership — King Louis XVI's indecisiveness and inability to address the mounting social and economic issues further eroded confidence in the monarchy. His appointment of unpopular ministers, such as Jacques Necker, and his failure to effectively manage the burgeoning crisis only fueled discontent.
5. The Estates-General — In an attempt to address the financial crisis, King Louis XVI convened the Estates-General in 1789 for the first time in over a century. However, the representation was heavily skewed in favour of the nobility and clergy, frustrating the Third Estate's aspirations for meaningful political change.
6. Storming of the Bastille — On July 14, 1789, growing unrest in Paris culminated in the storming of the Bastille, a symbol of royal tyranny. This event marked the beginning of the French Revolution.

Which groups of French society benefited from the revolution? Which groups were forced to relinquish power? Which sections of society would have been disappointed with the outcome of the revolution?

Answer

The revolution brought significant changes to French society, benefiting some groups while disappointing others:

1. Benefited Groups — The more prosperous and educated men of the Third Estate, which became known as the new middle class of France, benefited the most from the revolution. This group included big businessmen, petty officers, lawyers, teachers, doctors, and traders. Before the revolution, they had to pay state taxes and did not enjoy equal status. After the revolution, they got the status of active citizens with rights to vote and then become a member of the assembly.
2. Groups Forced to Relinquish Power — The clergy and the nobility were forced to give up their privileges due to the abolition of the feudal system of obligations and taxes. They were brought to the same level as the middle class and lost their executive powers and special privileges.
3. Disappointed Sections of Society — The poorer sections of society, such as small peasants, landless laborers, servants, and daily wage earners, would have been disappointed with the outcome of the revolution. Despite the promises of equality and better living conditions, many of these individuals saw little improvement in their circumstances.
   Women also would have been highly discontented with the revolution's outcome. Although the revolution initially raised hopes for greater gender equality, women continued to face significant social and political restrictions.

Describe the legacy of the French Revolution for the peoples of the world during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

Answer

The French Revolution left a profound legacy for the peoples of the world during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, influencing various aspects of society, politics, and ideology:

1. Spread of Democratic Ideals
   1. The French Revolution popularized the concepts of liberty, equality, and fraternity, which became fundamental principles for democratic movements worldwide.
   2. It inspired numerous revolutions and uprisings throughout the nineteenth century, including the 1848 Revolutions in Europe and independence movements in Latin America.
2. End of Feudalism
   1. The revolution contributed to the decline of feudalism and the rise of modern nation-states.
   2. It led to the abolition of feudal privileges and inspired similar reforms in other countries, promoting the idea of legal equality and the end of aristocratic privileges.
3. Human Rights and Citizenship
   1. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, adopted during the revolution, laid the groundwork for modern human rights discourse.
   2. It influenced the development of constitutions and legal frameworks that emphasized individual rights and the rule of law.
4. Nationalism
   1. The revolution fostered a sense of national identity and patriotism, which played a crucial role in the formation of nation-states.
   2. The idea that sovereignty belonged to the nation rather than a monarch influenced nationalist movements globally.
5. Social and Economic Reforms
   1. The revolution introduced significant social and economic changes, such as land reforms and the rise of a merit-based society.
   2. These changes influenced later social reforms, including labor rights, education, and welfare policies.
6. Symbol of Resistance
   1. The French Revolution became a symbol of resistance against oppression and tyranny.
   2. Revolutionary symbols and slogans, such as the tricolor flag and "Liberté, égalité, fraternité," were adopted by numerous movements seeking justice and equality.

Draw up a list of democratic rights we enjoy today whose origins could be traced to the French Revolution.

Answer

Democratic rights we enjoy today whose origins could be traced to the French Revolution are:

1. Freedom of Speech and Expression
2. Freedom of the Press
3. Right to vote
4. Right to Assembly
5. Right to Political Participation
6. Equality Before the Law
7. Abolition of untouchability
8. Civil Liberties
9. Secularism
10. Worker Rights
11. Citizenship Rights

Would you agree with the view that the message of universal rights was beset with contradictions? Explain.

Answer

Yes, it can be argued that the message of universal rights during and after the French Revolution was beset with contradictions. Following are the points that explain the contradiction:

• The principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity were proclaimed as universal rights but the application of these rights was often limited or selective. For example, rights were typically extended only to certain groups of citizens, such as property-owning men, while excluding women, minorities, and the poor.
• The French Revolution, despite its ideals of freedom and equality, was marked by periods of violence, repression, and authoritarianism. The Reign of Terror, in particular, saw the mass execution.
• The French Revolution did not completely eradicate class distinctions or social hierarchies.
• Despite advocating for equality, the French Revolution failed to extend rights to women on an equal basis with men. Women's participation in political life was limited, and they were excluded from many rights granted to male citizens, such as suffrage and property ownership.

How would you explain the rise of Napoleon?

Answer

The key factors that led to the rise of Napoleon were:

1. French Revolution — The French Revolution of 1789 overturned centuries of monarchy and feudalism, replacing it with ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity. This created opportunities for ambitious individuals like Napoleon to rise through the ranks based on merit rather than aristocratic birth.
2. Political Instability — The Directory, the ruling body in the late 1790s suffered political instability due to the clashes caused among the Directors and the Legislative Councils who sought to dismiss them. This paved the way for the rise of Napoleon.
3. Military Genius — Napoleon's victories in the Italian Campaigns (1796-1797) and the Egyptian Campaign (1798-1799) earned him fame and admiration of the French people.
4. Reforms and Policies — Napoleon introduced many laws such as the protection of private property and a uniform system of weights and measures provided by the decimal system. He implemented a series of reforms known as the Napoleonic Code modernizing French law and promoting meritocracy.
5. Propaganda and Charisma — Napoleon was a master of propaganda, carefully crafting his image as a hero of the Revolution and a defender of French interests. Initially, many saw Napoleon as a liberator who would bring freedom for the people. But soon the Napoleonic armies came to be viewed everywhere as an invading force.